Preface xv
CHAPTER 1 PRELIMINARIES AND PREMISES 1
1-1 Chemistry: What, Why, and How? 2
1-2 Scientific methodology 3
1-3 Matter 6
1-4 Changes in matter 12
1-5 Energy 15
1-6 Numbers, their use and misuse 18
1-7 Metric units 25
1-8 Solving numerical problems 28
Summary 35
Problems 36
CHAPTER 2 FORMULAS/ EQUATIONS, AND STOICHIOMETRY 41
2-1 The microstructure of matter 42
2-2 Chemical formulas 42
2-3 Atomic and other masses 46
2-4 The mole 48
2-5 Compound stoichiometry 52
2-6 Chemical equations 67
2-7 Reaction stoichiometry 60
2-8 Solution stoichiometry 68
2-9 The mole: additional comments 76
2-10 Chemical nomenclature: a first look 76
Summary 80
Problems 81
CHAPTER 3 THERMOCHEMISTRY 87
3-1 The first law of thermodynamics 88
3-2 Seat and enthalpy 91
3-3 Calorimetry 95
3-4 Thermochemical equations 99
3-5 The combustion of coal: a thermochemical illustration 104
Summary 106
Problems 107
CHAPTER 4 GASES 111
4-1 Variables used for describing gas behavior 112
4-2 Pressure-volume relationship: Boyle's law 115
4-3 Temperature effects: Charles' law 121
4-4 The ideal-gas law 127
4-5 Other properties of the ideal gas 132
4-6 Kinetic-molecular theory 140
4-7 Gas stoichiometry 145
4-8 Real gases 149
Summary 155
Problems 156
CHAPTER 5 THE ATOM 161
5-1 Early models of the atom 162
5-2 The nuclear atom 168
5-3 Atomic masses 173
5-4 Electrons in atoms 175
Summary 186
Problems 186
CHAPTER 6 ELECTRONS 189
6-1 The quantum-mechanical model and electronic energies 190
6-2 Waves and particles 204
6-3 Standing waves 208
6-4 The wavelike properties of electrons 212
6-5 Quantum numbers 222
Summary 225
Problems 226
CHAPTER 7 chemical periodicity 229
7-1 The discovery of the periodic law 230
7-2 Periodicity in electronic configurations 234
7-3 Periodicity in atomic properties 238
7-4 Periodicity in physical properties 247
7-5 Periodicity in chemical properties 249
Summary 258
Problems 259
CHAPTER 8 Chemical bonding 263
8-1 Ionic bonding 264
8-2 Covalent bonding 275
8-3 Electronegativity 285
8-4 Bond energies 290
8-5 Electronic bookkeeping, part I: formal charges 293
8-6 Electron-pair repulsion 296
8-7 The polarity of molecules 302
Summary 308
Problems 309
CHAPTER 9 SOUDS 313
9-1Solids: some preliminary observations 314
9-2 X-ray diffraction 315
9-3 The crystal lattice 319
9-4 Close packing 323
9-5 Bonding and properties of solids 330
9-6 Lattice energy 334
9-7 Defects in crystals 336
Summary 340
Problems 340
CHAPTER 10 LIQUIDS AND CHANGES OF STATE 345
10-1 Liquids 346
10-2 Equilibrium and vapor pressure 348
10-3 The variation of vapor pressure with temperature 352
10-4 Solid-liquid equilibria 358
10-5 Changes of State 360
10-6 Equilibrium and Le Chatelier's principle 364
10-7 Phase diagrams 371
Summary 374
Problems 375
CHAPTER 11 SOLUTIONS 379
11-1 General properties of solutions 380
11-2 Types of solutions 380
11-3 Concentration units 382
11-4 Solubility 386
11-5 Colligative properties 398
11-6 Electrolytes 412
Summary 421
Problems 422
CHAPTER 12 AQUEOUS-SOLUTION REACTIONS 427
12-1 Acid-base reactions 428
12-2 Precipitation and complexation reactions 434
12-3 Net equations for aqueous-solution reactions 438
12-4 Electronic bookkeeping, part II: oxidation numbers 445
12-5 Electron-transfer reactions 449
12-6 Solution stoichiometry 459
Summary 467
Problems 467
CHAPTER 13 Chemical kinetics 473
13-1 Reaction rates and mechanisms: a preview 474
13-2 The rate law 479
13-3 Collision theory 494
13-4 The activated complex 504
13-5 Reaction mechanisms: an introduction 506
13-6 Catalysis 507
Summary 510
Problems 511
CHAPTER 14 chemical equilibrium 517
14-1 Homogeneous chemical equilibria 518
14-2 The law of chemical equilibrium 523
14-3 Kinetics and equilibrium 530
14-4 Heterogeneous chemical equilibria 533
14-5 The variation of К with temperature 534
14-6 Equilibrium calculations 537
Summary 543
Problems 543
CHAPTER 15 Aqueous solutions: acid-base equilibria 549
15-1 The dissociation of weak acids 550
15-2 The dissociation of weak bases 560
15-3 The dissociation of water 565
15-4 Hydrolysis 569
15-5 Acid-base indicators and titration 578
15-6 Buffers 589
CHAPTER 13 Chemical kinetics 473
13-1 Reaction rates and mechanisms: a preview 474
13-2 The rate law 479
13-3 Collision theory 495
13-4 The activated complex 504
13-5 Reaction mechanisms: an introduction 506
13-6 Catalysis 507 507
Summary 510
Problems 511
CHAPTER 14 chemical equilibrium 517
14-1 Homogeneous chemical equilibria 518
14-2 The law of chemical equilibrium 523
14-3 Kinetics and equilibrium 530
14-4 Heterogeneous chemical equilibria 533
14-5 The variation of К with temperature 534
14-6 Equilibrium calculations 537
Summary 543
Problems 543
CHAPTER 15 aqueous solutions: acid-base equilibria 549
15-1 The dissociation of weak acids 550
15-2 The dissociation of weak bases 560
15-3 The dissociation of water 565
15-4 Hydrolysis 569
15-5 Acid-base indicators and titration 578
15-6 Buffers 589
15-7 Simultaneous acid-base equilibria 593
Summary 597
Problems 599
CHAPTER 16 aqueous solutions: solubility and complex-ion equilibria 603
16-1 The solubility of ionic solids 604
16-2 Precipitation reactions 612
16-3 Complex-ion equilibria 615
16-4 Simultaneous equilibria 622
Summary 627
Problems 628
CHAPTER 17 Chemical thermodynamics 631
17-1 The first law: a reconsideration 632
17-2 The second law 640
17-3 Gibbs free energy and spontaneous change 647
17-4 Changes in entropy and Gibbs free energy 651
17-5 Thermodynamics and equilibrium 657
Summary 662
Problems 662
CHAPTER 18 ELECTROCHEMISTRY 667
18-1 Galvanic cells 668
18-2 Electrolytic cells 676
18-3 Standard electrode potentials 688
18-4 Free energy, cell voltage, and equilibrium 694
18-5 The electrochemical measurement of pH 700
18-6 Commercial galvanic cells 704
Summary 708
Problems 708
CHAPTER 19 COVALENT BONDING 713
19-1 Valence-bond theory and orbital overlap 714
19-2 Hybrid orbitals 717
19-3 Molecular-orbital theory 727
Summary 739
Problems 740
CHAPTER 20 THE NONMETALS 743
20-1Inorganic nomenclature 744
20-2 Hydrogen 745
20-3 Oxygen 750
20-4 Water 757
20-5 The halogens 758
20-6 The chalcogens, especially sulfur 769
20-7 The group-VA nonmetals: nitrogen and phosphorus 778
20-8 Carbon 790
20-9 The noble gases 796
Summary 798
Problems 799
CHAPTER 21 THE REPRESENTATIVE METALS AND METALLOIDS 805
21-1 The alkali metals 806
21-2 The alkaline-earth metals 811
21-3 The group-IIIA metals 820
21-4 Other representative metals 825
21-5 The metalloids 829
Summary 839
Problems 840
CHAPTER 22 THE TRANSITION METALS 845
22-1 Electronic configurations 846
22-2 General properties 846
22-3 Complex ions: general structure and nomenclature 850
22-4 Bonding in complexes 854
22-5 The stereochemistry of complex ions 868
22-6 Descriptive chemistry of selected transition elements 872
Summary 891
Problems 893
CHAPTER 23 Organic chemistry 897
23-1 Saturated hydrocarbons 899
23-2 Unsaturated hydrocarbons 907
23-3 Aromatic hydrocarbons 912
23-4 Functional groups 915
23-5 Alcohols 916
23-6 Ethers 921
23-7 Aldehydes 922
23-8 Ketones 925
23-9 Carboxylic acids 927
23-10 Esters 930
23-11 Amines 932
23-12 Enantiomerism in organic compounds 934
23-13 Carbohydrates and proteins 935
Summary 940
Problems 941
CHAPTER 24 nuclear processes 945
24-1 Radioactivity 946
24-2 The kinetics of nuclear decay 950
24-3 Nuclear reactions 953
24-4 Nuclear stability 955
24-5 Fission, fusion, and nuclear binding energy 958
24-6 Chemical applications of radioactivity 963
Summary 966
Problems 967
APPENDIXES
Glossary of Important Terms A-l
Units, Constants, and Conversion Equations A-13
B-l. Units A-13
B-2. Physical Constants A-14
B-3. Conversion Equations A-14
Chemical Nomenclature A-15
C-l. Trivial Names A-15
C-2. Systematic Inorganic Nomenclature A-15
C-3. Systematic Organic Nomenclature A-21
Mathematical Operations A-24
D-l. Linear Equations and Their Graphs A-24
D-2. Quadratic Equations A-24
D-3. Logarithms A-25
Clark's Method of Writing Lewis Structures A-26
Vapor Pressure of Water A-28
Selected Thermodynamic Properties at 25°C A-29
Equilibrium Constants at 25°C A-31
H-l. Dissociation Constants of Weak Acids A-31
H-2. Dissociation Constants of Weak Bases A-31
H-3. Solubility Products A-32
Standard Reduction Potentials at 25°C A-33
J. Answers to Selected Numerical Problems A-35
Index 1-1